The term pirate radio usually refers to illegal or unregulated radio transmissions. Its etymology can be traced to the unlicensed nature of the transmission, but historically there has been occasional but notable use of sea vessels – fitting the most common perception of a pirate – as broadcasting bases. The term is most commonly used to describe illegal broadcasting for entertainment or political purposes, but is also sometimes used for illegal two-way radio operation. Rules and regulations vary widely from country to country. In countries such as the USA and many countries in Europe, many types of radio licenses exist, and often the term pirate radio generally describes the unlicensed broadcast of FM radio, AM radio, or short wave signals over a wide range.

In some cases radio stations are deemed legal where the signal is transmitted, but illegal where the signals are received—especially when the signals cross a national boundary. In other cases, a broadcast may be considered "pirate" due to the nature of its content, its transmission format (especially a failure to transmit a station identification according to regulations), or the transmit power (wattage) of the station, even if the transmission is not technically illegal (such as a web cast or an amateur radio transmission). Therefore pirate radio means different things to different people, implying some licensing procedure has been violated somewhere within the reach of the signal. Pirate radio stations are sometimes called bootleg stations (a term especially associated with two-way radio), clandestine stations or Free Radio stations.

Pirate radio history and examples

Radio "piracy" began with the advent of regulations of the public airwaves in the United States at the dawn of the Age of Radio. Initially, radio, or wireless as it was more commonly called, was an open field of hobbyists and early inventors and experimenters, including Nikola Tesla, Lee De Forest, and Thomas Edison. The United States Navy began using radio for time signals and weather reports on the east coast of the United States in the 1890s. Before the advent of valve technology, early radio enthusiasts used noisy spark-gap transmitters, such as the first spark-gap modulation technology pioneered by the first real audio (rather than telegraph code) radio broadcaster, Charles D. Herrold, in San Jose, California, or the infamous Ruhmkorff coil used by almost all early experimenters. The Navy soon began complaining to a sympathetic press that amateurs were disrupting naval transmissions. The May 25, 1907, edition of Electrical World in an article called "Wireless and Lawless" reported authorities were unable to prevent an amateur from interfering with the operation of a government station at the Washington, D.C. Navy Yard using legal means.

HDR Text from > http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heinrich_Ruhmkorff

Heinrich Daniel Ruhmkorff was a German instrument maker who commercialised the induction coil (often referred to as the Ruhmkorff coil.) Ruhmkorff was born in Hanover. After an apprenticeship with a German mechanic, he moved to England. Biographies say that he worked with the inventor Joseph Bramah, but this is unlikely since Bramah died in 1814. He may, though, have worked for the Bramah company. In 1855, he set up a shop in Paris, where he gained a reputation for the high quality of his electrical apparatus.

Although Ruhmkorff is often credited with the invention of the induction coil, it was in fact invented by Nicholas Callan in 1836. Ruhmkorff's first coil, which he patented in 1851, utilized long windings of copper wire to achieve a spark of approximately 2 inches (50 mm) in length. In 1857, after examining a greatly improved version made by an American inventor, Edward Samuel Ritchie, Ruhmkorff improved his design (as did other engineers), using glass insulation and other innovations to allow the production of sparks more than 30 centimetres long. Ruhmkorff patented the first version of his induction coil in 1851, and its success was such that in 1858 he was awarded a 50,000-franc prize by Napoleon III for the most important discovery in the application of electricity. He died in Paris in 1877.

In the run-up to the London Radiotelegraph Convention in 1912 (essentially an international gentlmen's agreement on use of the radio band, non-binding and, on the high seas, completely null), and amid concerns about the safety of marine radio following the sinking of the Titanic on April 15 of that year (although there were never allegations of radio interference in that event), the New York Herald of April 17, 1912, headlined President Taft's initiative to regulate the public airwaves in an article called "President Moves to Stop Mob Rule of Wireless."

When the "Act to Regulate Radio Communication" was passed on August 13, 1912, amateurs and experimenters were not banned from broadcasting; rather, amateurs were assigned their own frequency spectrum and licensing and call-signs were introduced. By regulating the public airwaves, President Taft thus created the legal space for illicit broadcasts to take place. An entire federal agency, the Federal Communications Commission, was created eventually to enforce rules on call-signs, assigned frequencies, licensing and acceptable content for broadcast.

The 1912 Radio Act gave the president legal permission to shut down radio stations "in time of war," and during the first two and a half years of World War One, before US entry, President Wilson tasked the US Navy with monitoring US radio stations, nominally to ensure "neutrality." The Navy used this authority to shut down amateur radio in the western part of the US (the US was divided into two civilian radio "districts" with corresponding call-signs, beginning with K in the west and W in the east, in the regulatory measures; the Navy was assigned call-signs beginning with N). When Wilson declared war on Germany on April 6, 1917, he also issued an executive order closing most radio stations not needed by the US government. The Navy took it a step further and declared it was illegal to listen to radio or possess a receiver or transmitter in the US, but there were doubts they had the authority to issue such an order even in war time. The ban on radio was lifted in the US in late 1919.

In 1924, New York City station WHN was accused of being an "outlaw" station by AT&T (then American Telephone and Telegraph Company) for violating trade licenses which permitted only AT&T stations to sell airtime on their transmitters. As a result of the AT&T interpretation a landmark case was heard in court, which even prompted comments from Secretary of Commerce Herbert Hoover when he took a public stand in the station's defence. Although AT&T won its case, the furore created was such that those restrictive provisions of the transmitter license were never enforced.

In Europe, Denmark had the first known radio station in the world to broadcast commercial radio from a vessel in international waters without permission from the authorities in the country that it broadcast to (Denmark in this case). The station was named Radio Mercur and began transmission on August 2nd 1958. In the Danish newspapers it was soon called a "pirate radio".

In the 1960s in the UK, the term referred to not only a perceived unauthorised use of the state-run spectrum by the unlicensed broadcasters but also the risk-taking nature of offshore radio stations that actually operated on anchored ships or marine platforms.

A good example of this kind of activity was Radio Luxembourg located in the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg. The English language evening broadcasts from Radio Luxembourg were beamed by Luxembourg licensed transmitters. The audience in the United Kingdom originally listened to their radio sets by permission of a Wireless Licence issued by the British General Post Office (GPO). However, under terms of that Wireless Licence, it was an offence under the Wireless Telegraphy Act to listen to unauthorised broadcasts, which possibly included those transmitted by Radio Luxembourg. Therefore as far as the British authorities were concerned, Radio Luxembourg was not a "pirate radio station" and British listeners to the station were not breaking the law (although as the term 'unauthorised' was never properly defined it was somewhat of a legal grey area). This did not stop British newspapers from printing programme schedules for the station, or a British weekly magazine aimed at teenage girls, "Fab 208" from promoting the "DJs" and their lifestyle (Radio Luxembourg's wavelength was 208 metres (1440 kHz)).

Radio Luxembourg was later joined by three other well known pirate stations received in the UK in violation of UK licensing, Radio Caroline, North and South, plus Radio Atlanta which became Caroline South and Radio London, all of which broadcast from vessels anchored outside of territorial limits and were therefore legitimate. Radio Jackie, for instance (although transmitting illegally), was registered for VAT and even had its address and telephone number in local telephone directories.

Where actual sea-faring vessels are not involved, the term pirate radio is a political term of convenience as the word "pirate" suggests an illegal venture, regardless of the broadcasts actual legal status. The radio station XERF located at Ciudad Acuña, Coahuila, Mexico, just across the Rio Grande from Del Rio, Texas, USA, is an example.

While Mexico issued radio station XERF with a license to broadcast, the power of its 250,000 watts transmitter was far greater than the maximum of 50,000 watts authorized for commercial use by the government of the United States of America. Consequently, XERF and many other radio stations in Mexico, which sold their broadcasting time to sponsors of English-language commercial and religious programs, were labelled as "border blasters", but not "pirate radio stations", even though the content of many of their programs were in violation of US law. Predecessors to XERF, for instance, had originally broadcast in Kansas, advocating "goat-gland surgery" for improved masculinity, but moved to Mexico to evade US laws about advertising medical treatments, particularly unproven ones.

Free radio

Another variation on the term pirate radio came about during the "Summer of Love" in San Francisco during the hippie days when many things were named "free". Examples include "free store", "free love" and even "free radio", which usually referred to clandestine and unlicensed land-based transmissions. These were also tagged as being pirate radio transmissions. Free Radio was only ever used to refer to Radio transmissions that were beyond Government control, as was offshore Radio in the UK and Europe.

The term free radio was adopted by the Free Radio Association of listeners who defended the rights of the offshore " radio stations" broadcasting from ships and marine structures off the coastline of the United Kingdom. Félix Guattari points out:

"Technological development, and in particular the miniaturization of transmitters and the fact that they can be put together by amateurs, 'encounters' a collective aspiration for some new means of expression."  In Europe, in addition to adopting the term free radio, supportive listeners of what had been called pirate radio adopted the term offshore radio, which was usually the term used by the owners of the marine broadcasting stations.

Pirate radio by geographical area

Since this subject covers both national territories, international waters and international airspace, the only effective way to treat this subject is on a country by country, international waters and international airspace basis. Because the laws vary, the interpretation of the term pirate radio also varies considerably.

Questions have been raised about various types of broadcasting conducted by national governments against the interests of other national governments, which have in turn created radio jamming stations transmitting noises on the same frequency so as to destroy the receivability of the incoming signal.

While the USA transmitted its programs towards the USSR, which attempted to jam them, in 1970 the government of the United Kingdom decided to employ a jamming transmitter to drown out the incoming transmissions from the commercial station Radio North Sea International, which was based aboard the Motor Vessel (MV) Mebo II anchored off Southeast England in the North Sea. It was even alleged the station was a front for a Warsaw pact numbers station.

Other examples of this type of unusual broadcasting include the Coast Guard Cutter USCGC Courier, which both originated and relayed broadcasts of the Voice of America from an anchorage at the island of Rhodes, Greece to Soviet bloc countries. Balloons have been flown above Key West, Florida to support the TV transmissions of TV Martí, which are directed at Cuba. Military broadcasting aircraft have been flown over Vietnam, Iraq and many other nations by the United States Air Force. The European Union financially supported a radio station broadcasting news and information into the former Yugoslavia from a ship anchored in international waters.

New media pirate radio

Pirate radio has long been synonymous with AM (LW,MW & SW) and FM (VHF) unlicensed broadcasting and "border blasting" in most parts of the world. With the advent of the internet, many conventional AM/FM radio stations have also taken to simulcasting via the web. These range from public broadcasters, licensed commercial radio, and in some countries, the 3rd tier of low power license exempt radio stations.

Despite pirate radio being known for over the air transmission, a new type of so called "pirate radio" stations now operate on-line. The distinguishing feature is that these on-line pirates will usually not pay music copyright fees, like most of their AM/FM pirate cousins. These on-line stations will usually attract a small and loyal audience and may go unnoticed by the authorities, unlike the real AM/FM pirates who can easily be heard and traced on a conventional radio. The common term for this type of operation is better served by the term "Studio Pirates" rather than pirate radio, as no real radio transmitter is used.

A recent case of on-line studio pirate was seen in the UK. Hitz Radio(UK) and not to be confused with HitzRadio.com (USA) managed to attract large amounts of mainstream media publicity in early 2007. This publicity resulted from Ryan Dunlop, the owner of the station, nominating Hitz Radio for various business awards. After this publicity, many people with radio industry knowledge began to probe the station, which had claimed "millions of fans" and tens of thousands of listeners on-line. These claims, along with others, were part of the portfolio put forward for the business awards. When industry insiders checked these claims, it resulted in the UK music copyright agencies PPL and MCPS-PRS Alliance chasing back fees owed by Ryan Dunlop and Hitz Radio. That in turn resulted in the audience claims to be false, based upon the amount of back dated fees owed for copyright.

Piracy in amateur and two-way radio

Illegal use of licensed radio spectrum (also known as bootlegging in CB circles) is fairly common and takes several forms.

• Unlicensed operation -- Particularly associated with amateur radio and licensed personal communication services such as GMRS, this refers to use of radio equipment on a section of spectrum for which the equipment is designed but on which the user is not licensed to operate (most such operators are informally known as "bubble pack pirates" from the sealed plastic retail packaging common to such walkie-talkies). While piracy on the US GMRS band, for example, is widespread (some estimates have the number of total GMRS users outstripping the number of licensed users by several orders of magnitude), such use is generally disciplined only in cases where the pirate's activity interferes with a licensee. (A notable case is that of United States amateur operator and political activist Jack Gerritsen (operating under the revoked call sign KG6IRO), who was successfully prosecuted by the FCC for unlicensed operation and malicious interference.) A subcategory of this is free banding, the use of allocations nearby a legal allocation (most typically the 27 MHz Citizen's Band) on modified or purpose-built gear.

• Inadvertent interference -- Common when personal communications gear is brought into countries where it is not certified to operate. Such interference results from clashing frequency allocations, and occasionally requires wholesale reallocation of an existing band due to an insurmountable interference problem; for example, the 2004 approval in Canada of the unlicensed use of the United States General Mobile Radio Service frequencies due to interference from users of FRS/GMRS radios from the United States, where Industry Canada had to transfer a number of licensed users on the GMRS frequencies to unoccupied channels to accommodate the expanded service.

• Deliberate or malicious interference -- refers to the use of two-way radio to harass or jam other users of a channel. Such behaviour is widely prosecuted, especially when it interferes with mission-critical services such as aviation radio or marine VHF radio.

• Illegal equipment -- This refers to the use of illegally modified equipment or equipment not certified for a particular band. Such equipment includes illegal linear amplifiers for CB radio, antenna or circuit modifications on walkie-talkies, the use of "export" radios for free banding, or the use of amateur radios on unlicensed bands that amateur gear is not certified for. The use of marine VHF radio gear for inland mobile radio operations is common in some countries, with enforcement difficult since marine VHF is generally the province of maritime authorities.

List of known Pirate Radio Stations

NOTE: USE YOUR BROWSER RETURN ARROW TO COME BACK TO THIS PAGE

• Impact FM 87.5, United Kingdom and online at impact875.co.uk
• La Tremenda 106.5, Mexico
• Radio Caroline South, United Kingdom
• Radio Jackie, United Kingdom (Now licensed and legal)
• Radio Caroline North, United Kingdom
• Radio Scotland, United Kingdom
• Radio 270, United Kingdom
• Swinging Radio England, United Kingdom
• Britain Radio, United Kingdom
• Radio City, United Kingdom
• Radio 390, United Kingdom
• Radio Essex, United Kingdom
• Radio Mercur, Denmark
• Radio Milinda, Dublin
• Radio Kaleidoscope, United Kingdom
• Wonderful Radio London, United Kingdom
• Wicked Radio, 88.9 FM 25 watts Metal, Punk, Rock, Talk (English) Edgerton, Wisconsin United States
• Flava 105.5, 105.5 FM reggae, reggaeton, hip-hop, Worcester, Massachusetts, United States
• TSF (radio), from Portugal, originally a pirate radio, it was legalized during the 1989 forgiveness of private radios (since these weren´t allowed in Portugal).
• WTCR, Twentieth Century Radio, US-based shortwave pirate radio hosted by Dr. Morbius, from June 7-8, 2008 broadcast 0143-0314 UTC on 6925 kHz in USB mode. Uses call letters of the licensed WTCR and WTCR-FM stations in Virginia and West Virginia.
• Dread Broadcasting Corporation, London's first black music radio station.

Pirate Radio Photos & QSLs are almost a hobby unto themselves. Providing a record that a listener has heard a particular station, they often go far beyond their intended purpose by making personal statements, rhetoric, philosophy and the bizarre. While they tend to be a by-product of the Shortwave pirate scene, the Micropower Stations are also getting into the act by producing posters, stickers and other items to promote their efforts. Presented here are some of the best, interesting, significant and unique QSLs from the FRN collection spanning almost 20 years. I hope that you enjoy them as much as we enjoy showing them to friends.

LINK TO ABOVE PAGE >>> The Famous FRN QSL Collection <<< CLICK ON

My friend who is a USC film student did a documentary on my defunct radio station,

Morbid Radio, that the FCC busted.

CLICK ON >>> MORBID RADIO <<< CLICK ON

Brooklyn Pirate Radio WFAT

WFAT 1620 AM Brooklyn, New York. Circa 1980.

This film features DJs Hank Hayes, Jim Nazium,

and the FCC agents Judah Mansbacj and

Alexander Zimney that kept busting them,
All we wanted to do was go wild and do fun shows.

 CLICK ON >>> WFAT VIDEO <<< CLICK ON 

Brooklyn Pirate Radio WGUT Rings In 1983

Hank Hayes and Jim Nazium ring in 1983 on WGUT 1620 AM.

Operating with just 50 watts out of a bedroom in Brooklyn, NY.

WGUT reached as far west as Michigan.

WFAT & WGUT went on to become WHOT an AM and FM operation 

heard in 19 states, two time zones in the US and Canada.

CLICK ON >>> WGUT VIDEO <<< CLICK ON

Pirate Radio WHOT- Brooklyn

Pirate DJ's Hank Hayes and Jim Nazium swing

to the sounds of "Concrete and Clay"

by Unit 4 + 2 on this Videocheck of the

3rd Anniversary of WHOT Brooklyn.
Please note: the original tape is wrinkled, thanks to

a Sony Betamax that over $950 in 1982 money

(adjusted for inflation that would be over $2000 dollars today)

CLICK ON >>> WHOT VIDEO <<< CLICK ON

 

Hank Hayes, Jim Nazium, and Pete Sayek give a brief tour of the

On-Air studio of America's wildest pirate radio station, WHOT-Brooklyn.

CLICK ON >>> WHOT STATION TOUR VIDEO <<< CLICK ON

 

Hank Hayes and Pete Sayek blow up a street corner

in Brooklyn, NY back in the days when July 4th

meant lots of fireworks and anarchy in the streets

all broadcast live on WHOT 91 1/2 FM!

CLICK ON >>> WHOT Brooklyn July 4th Extravganza! VIDEO <<< CLICK ON

 

 FCC raid on pirate radio

Swat team raid pirate radio station in Santa Cruz, California

CLICK ON >>> FCC RAID ON THE STATION <<< CLICK ON

 

Listening to Pirate Radio Stations on 6 MHz 

Listening to a few pirate radio stations on 6 MHz

with my old FRG-7 one Sunday in early October 2008

CLICK ON >>> 7 MHz PIRATE STATIONS <<< CLICK ON

 

Hunting Pirate Radio-part 1

First in our series about Modern Rock 94.5.

Exploring the signal, is it legal or not?

CLICK ON >>> TRACK DOWN THE PIRATE <<< CLICK ON

Hunting Pirate Radio-part 2

First in our series about Modern Rock 94.5.

Exploring the signal, is it legal or not?

CLICK ON >>> FOUND THE PIRATE <<< CLICK ON

 

PIRATE RADIO USA 

Seize the Airwaves!

CLICK ON >>> PIRATE RADIO USA <<< CLICK ON 

  

 

CLICK ON >>> PIRATE RADIO USA SITE <<< CLICK ON

MORE INFORMATION (LINKS) ON HF RADIO PIRATES

CLICK ON >>> DXing.com Pirate Radio Page <<< CLICK ON

 CLICK ON >>> Association of Clandestine radio Enthusiasts <<< CLICK ON

 CLICK ON >>> The FRN Grapevines Forum <<< CLICK ON

 HAVE A LISTEN ON USB @ 6955 MHz ON HOLIDAYS AND WEEKENDS

 TO HEAR HF RADIO PIRATE ACTIVITY

 ~ WE DO NOT CONDONE ILLEGAL PIRATE HF RADIO ACTIVITY ~

 MUCH BETTER TO BE A LEGAL OPERATOR AND GET INTO

 AMATEUR RADIO OR LEGAL FM BROADCASTING

 YOU WILL FIND IT MUCH MORE SATISFYING

 AND NOT HAVE TO WORRY ABOUT THE

 FCC KNOCKING AT YOU DOOR

CLICK ON >>> BECOME A HAM RADIO OPERATOR <<< CLICK ON

 Low-Power Broadcasting

(NOT PIRATE RADIO ~ LEGAL BROADCASTING)

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

FM radio

In the U.S., the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) partially re-legalized LPFM licenses, after the National Association of Broadcasters (NAB), Corporation for Public Broadcasting (CPB), and National Public Radio (NPR) convinced them to stop issuing the FM class D license in 1978.

The new LPFM licenses in the United States may only be issued to nonprofit educational organizations and state and local governments. Also, the one and so far only "window" for applications closed in 2003, and at present, the FCC is not entertaining any new broadcast license applications, instead conducting auctions of frequencies for full power uses only.

An example of a U.S.-based LPFM radio station is WQJJ-LP, which is owned by North Alabama Public Service Broadcasters and was applied for with the assistance of MonsterFM.com - Broadcast Technical Services, a broadcast engineering firm that specializes in such applications and was actively involved in the creation of the original LPFM rulemaking

LPFM classes

• Class L1 (LP100) is from 50 to 100 watts effective radiated power (ERP).
• Class L2 (L10) is at least 1 and up to 10 watts ERP.
• Class D is 10 watts Transmitter power output (TPO) or less, regardless of ERP, and are no longer issued for LPFM services (since 1978).

Officially, class D is still assigned to broadcast translators, though the rules are actually much looser (up to 250 watts ERP) than for true LPFM stations, though they may not broadcast their own programming. This is due to the influence of NPR and religious broadcasting companies, which often rely on translators. Since true class D stations can bump translators, they therefore have less competition in getting or keeping their own translators on the air with new class D stations kept off the air.

New classes L1 and L2 are still considered amateur class D for international purposes, but are considered to be equal in status to translators, and subordinate to full class D stations still operating.

Broadcast Auxiliary-Low Power stations are authorized in the frequency band 76–88 MHz; however, such stations must remain 129 kilometers (80 miles) or more distant from any other Part 73 Broadcast Station or LPTV/TV Translator station on Channel 6 if using the 87.8 to 88.0 MHz segment of the band. [47 CFR Section 74.802.] Therefore, these particular stations authorize the use of FM Channel 200 (87.9 MHz). Such stations permit transmissions of live broadcast events. [47 CFR Section 74.831.] To qualify, you must own another broadcast station, or produce TV/motion picture programming (which, with the proliferation of online TV Webcasting, is not difficult). [47 CFR Section 74.832.] Power is limited to 50 milliwatts (1/20th of 1 watt). [47 CFR Section 74.861.] These stations are licensed through the FCC's Wireless Telecommunications Bureau online by accessing ULS. There are equipment requirements in the FCC's rules, but none are too daunting for the typical citizen with an average level of income and savings. Unusual antennas are not allowed; however, gain antennas (up to about 6 db/D gain) are permitted under the rules. The license fee is currently $135 for a 4–8 year term license. Such stations are NOT restricted to filing windows, so a qualified applicant could be licensed at any time. These stations are NOT protected from interference by other broadcast entities under Parts 73 or 74 of the FCC's rules, but ARE protected from interference by the Part 15 transmitters described below.

Part 15 rules are quite strict for FM, making it nearly impossible to operate a legally-unlicensed station that can be heard more than a few yards away. The rule is a signal strength of 250 µV/m at 3 meters from the antenna within the band 88 to 108 MHz, set forth in 47 CFR §15.239. Radiating cable antenna systems do allow for longer, if still narrow, radiated fields and are commonly used for building broadcast systems (stadiums, dormitories, apartments, etc...) with high success. Such systems are also used for specialized audiences for hearing assistance and language translation at events. Some communities have attempted to have multiple Part 15 stations align to form a sort of neighborhood "syndication" and legally increase the outreach, but it becomes impractical in light of the new technologies that allow for information to reach a wider audience more efficiently.

Legislation

Telecommunications Act of 1996

The Telecommunications Act of 1996 was implemented in order to foster competition between the firms in the Telecommunications Sector including those stations of LPFM. Reed Hundt, the FCC chair at the time, said that the FCC imposed the act to encourage “diversity in programming and diversity in the viewpoints expressed on this powerful medium that so shapes our culture.” The act “mandates interconnection of telecommunications networks, unbundling, non-discrimination, and cost-based pricing of leased parts of the network.” However the act relies upon the behaviors of companies to do what is in their best interest and does not enforce punishment towards firms that do not abide by the act. Furthermore research suggests that the Act has led to “less competition, fewer viewpoints, and less diversity in programming.”^{[citation needed]}

Foundation of LPFM

• Jan. 2000: FCC established new class of stations called Low Power FM (LPFM) Stations. These stations were allowed to operate at 1–10 or 50–100 watts of power (compared to the minimum requirement for commercial stations at 6000 watts.)
• Originally it was supported by activists, music artists (such as Bonnie Raitt), church leaders, and educators (for example, American Library Association, Communication Workers of American labor union, National League of Cities, United Church of Christ).
• Original purpose of LPFM, as described in J&MC Quarterly Journal, as "... Necessary to offset the growing consolidation of station ownership in the wake of the Telecommunications Act of 1996, which removed caps on radio ownership, as well as the decline of locally produced radio programming." (Stavisky, Alan G., Robert K. Avery, and Helena Vanhala. "From Class D to LPFM: The High-Powered Politics of Low-Power Radio." Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly 78 (2001): 340–54.)
• Main opposition came from National Association of Broadcasters (NAB). The reason behind their opposition to the act was to "maintain spectrum integrity" for commercial broadcasting, according to NAB President Edward O. Fritts (Stavisky, Alan G., Robert K. Avery, and Helena Vanhala. "From Class D to LPFM: The High-Powered Politics of Low-Power Radio." Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly 78 (2001): 340–54.).

Radio Broadcasting Preservation Act of 2000

• Pressure from National Association of Broadcasters urged Congress to slip the Radio Broadcasting Preservation Act of 2000 into a general spending bill that circulated through Congress. In December 2000, President Clinton signed the bill, albeit reluctantly.
• Here is a copy of the actual bill that went through Congress. [2]
• This act was meant to tighten standards for LPFM stations, in an effort to make it harder for stations to be approved in order to protect full-power FM stations.

1. The FCC has the ability and jurisdiction to license LPFM stations.^[1]
2. Third adjacent channel interference protections require LPFM stations to be separated by at least 0.6 MHz from all other stations with the intent of preventing signal interference.
3. Applicants who have engaged in the unlicensed operation of any station cannot receive LPFM licenses.
4. The FCC agreed to commission studies on the interference effects and economic impact of LPFM on full-power stations. (The findings, later published in the MITRE Corporation Report, suggest that third adjacent channel interference protections may not be necessary.)^[2]

• Basically, this act shifts policy making from the FCC to Congress, which was considered an insult against the FCC. (Stavisky, Alan G., Robert K. Avery, and Helena Vanhala. "From Class D to LPFM: The High-Powered Politics of Low-Power Radio." Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly 78 (2001): 340–54.)

Local Community Radio Act of 2005

• Introduced by U.S. Senators John McCain, Maria Cantwell, Patrick Leahy
• After the FCC complied with the provisions of the Radio Broadcasting Act of 2000 by commissioning the MITRE Report [3] to test if there was significant interference from LPFM stations on the full-power stations, the study showed that the interference of LPFM is minimal and won't have a significant effect on other stations. [4]
• According to Sen. Leahy, "This bill will open up the airwaves to truly local broadcasting while protecting full-power broadcasters from unreasonable interference and preserving important services such as reading services for the blind." [5]

Local Community Radio Act of 2007

Sponsored in the U.S. House of Representatives by Congressmen Mike Doyle and Lee Terry and in the U.S. Senate by Senators Maria Cantwell and John McCain the Local Community Radio Act of 2007 failed to be voted on. The House bill, H.R. 2802, was referred to the Subcommittee on Telecommunications and the Internet on June 21, 2007.^[3] Since the bill was not passed in FY 2007, the bill was removed from the docket as Never Passed.

Local Community Radio Act of 2009

This bill is an update of the Local Community Radio Act of 2007. It will require FCC to alter current rules in order to get rid of the minimum distance separation between low-power FM stations and third-adjacent channel stations.^[4] Previously, there had been a minimum distance requirement, however the FCC found that LPFM stations did not cause any interference on third-adjacent channel stations, thus eliminating the need for such a requirement.^[5]

The Local Community Radio Act of 2009 also requires that the FCC keep the rules that offer interference protection to third-adjacent channels that offer a radio reading service (the reading of newspapers, books or magazines for those who are blind or hearing impaired.)^[6] This protection will ensure that such channels are not subject to possible interference by LPFM stations.^[3]

The final part of the bill requires that when giving out licenses to FM stations, the FCC must make sure that these licenses are also available to LPFM stations and that licensing decisions are made with regard to local community needs.^[7]

As of September 18, 2009, the bill has unanimous bipartisan support from FCC leadership.^[8]

Arguments for LPFM

• Freepress.net is a "national, nonpartisan organization working to reform the media. Through education, organizing and advocacy, we promote diverse and independent media ownership, strong public media, and universal access to communications."^[9] Freepress.net supports LPFM for a variety of reasons:
  • It strengthens community identity.
  • It creates an outlet for amateur musicians to get their music heard.
  • It creates diversity on the air because women and racial minorities are represented.
  • It creates an opportunity for young people, especially college students, who are interested in radio to learn about the business.
  • It provides farmers with up to date agricultural information.

• President Bill Clinton is a known advocate of LPFM saying it is "giving voice to the voiceless" including schools, community groups, churches, and ethnic groups.^[10]

• An average FM station can cost a million dollars and only businesses and very wealthy people can afford it. LPFM stations are affordable. An antenna and transmitter can cost $2000–$5000.^[11]

Arguments against LPFM

• Signal Interference on FM Station: High-power FM stations express concern that LPFM stations may cause interference with their signals if third adjacent channel interference protections are not observed. While the Mitre Report suggests that the likelihood for interference is not as threatening as previously thought, high-power FM stations question the methodology, scope and validity of the study and its results.^[12]

• FM translators: These devices allow a radio station to rebroadcast its signal to reach a greater area. FM translators could benefit religious broadcasters wishing to reach a larger audience, as well as many AM radio stations who, due to ionospheric refraction, are required to emit weaker signals during the night.^[13] FM translators are low-power, so compete with LPFM for limited space on the airwaves.

• In some states, the local Department of Transportation operates large networks of LPFM stations that act as highway advisory radio stations—a service traditionally operated at the fringes of the AM band—restricting the number of available channels.^{[citation needed]} (These systems can be licensed to the entire AM band, but the LPFM service provides considerably greater coverage at 100w than the 10w limit on AM—hence the considerable appeal for government agencies).

• Some investors in radio believe LPFM services prevent the development of digital radio.^[14]

• NPR is one opponent to low power FM.. Their stance is that allowing more flexible rules for LPFM would burden other stations by forcing them to deal with interference problems and because of the fact that full power broadcasters reach a broader audience and provide a greater service, they should be favored regarding spectrum availability.^[15]

• NAB is the other major source of opposition. Their stance is that full power FM broadcasters “enhance localism” by providing community responsive information such as emergency information. Allowing low power FM stations to have equal spectrum rights could be detrimental to these necessary programs.^[16]

LPFM vs. broadcast translators

Unlike the former FM class D license, an LPFM station has no priority over broadcast translators in the allocation of available spectrum. This is problematic insofar as a loophole in the regulations for broadcast translators exempts non-commercial stations from the requirement that translators be within the coverage area of the original station that they rebroadcast.

An FCC licensing window for new translator applications in 2003 resulted in over 13,000 applications being filed,^[17] most of them coming from a few religious broadcasters. Although many believe that these broadcasters were exploiting a loophole allowing non-commercial stations to feed distant translators from satellite-delivered programming hundreds or even thousands of miles outside the parent station's coverage area^[18], this is incorrect. Except for local fill-in translators and those located on channels 201–220, all translators on commercial frequencies must be fed by a direct, over-the-air source, regardless of who owns the translator per FCC rule 74.1231(b)^[19]. One station cannot apply for hundreds or thousands of translators nationwide, using automated means to generate license applications for all available channels, unless all of their applications are exclusively on the non-commercial part of the broadcast band (88–91.9 mHz). As with any new service that shares the FM spectrum, when translators are added to an area, they can reduce or eliminate the availability of channels both for new LPFM applicants and for relocation of any existing LPFM stations displaced by full-service broadcasters.

Unlike an LPFM station, a translator is not required to (and legally not authorized to) originate any local content.

See Broadcast_relay_station#Great_Translator_Invasion_of_2003.

AM radio

LPAM is generally not licensed in the U.S., but is allowed on the campus of any school, so long as the normal Part 15 rules are adhered to when measured at the edge of the campus. Many currently licensed college radio stations started out this way. Stations may have freestanding radio antennas, or may use carrier current methods to ride on power lines. These signals cannot pass through transformers, however, and are prone to the electromagnetic interference of the alternating current. Stations may also use 'leaky' or radiating cable transmission systems. Tens of thousands of these stations have been in operation around the country since the 1940s, and many continue to thrive where conventional licensing is unavailable and the operators still desire to conform to Federal laws.

The exception is Travelers' Information Stations (TIS), sometimes also called highway advisory radio (HAR). These are licensed LPAM stations set up by local transport departments to provide bulletins to motorists and other travelers regarding traffic and other delays. These are often near highways and airports, and occasionally other tourism attractions such as national parks. Only governments may have licenses for TIS/HAR stations, and music is disallowed. These operate under FCC Part 90.242 and may be licensed by quasi-governmental agencies as well (many are used by chemical and nuclear facilities for emergency evacuation information systems) as well as by public safety entities for mobile operations.

Television

LPTV (-LP) is common in the U.S., Canada and most of the Americas where most stations originate their own programming. Stations that do not originate their own programming are designated as translators (-TX). The Community Broadcasters act of 1998 directed the FCC to create classification of LPTV licenses called Class A (-CA). Digital low power and Class-A television stations have an ERP limit of 300 watts for VHF, and 15 kilowatts for UHF.^[20]

The LPTV service is considered a secondary service by the FCC, which means the licensee is not guaranteed protection from interference or displacement. An LPTV station must accept harmful interference from full-service television stations and may not cause harmful interference to any full-service television station. (The FCC defines what interference levels are deemed to be "harmful".) The problem with potential displacement was made evident during the transition of broadcasting in the United States from analog to digital. All television stations operating on channels 52 and above were required to move to channel 51 or below. Full-service stations were guaranteed a place to land in the new compressed band while LPTV stations operating on channels 52 and above were forced to find their own channel to move to. If a station was not able to find a displacement channel it runs the risk of losing its license.

Class A LPTV stations

The FCC provided for a one-time filing opportunity for existing LPTV stations to become Class A stations. The designation was available only to those LPTV stations that were producing two hours per week of local programming. Class A status provides for protected channel status and Class A stations are required to produce two hours per week of local programming, maintain a production studio within their Grade B contour, and comply with many of the requirements placed on full-service television stations.

Must-carry

One of the key distinctions between full-service television stations and low-power stations is cable and DBS (Direct Broadcast Satellite) carriage. Full-service stations are guaranteed carriage in their local DMA through "must-carry" and LPTV stations are not. In 2008 there was an effort put forward by FCC Chairman Kevin Martin to grant must-carry rights to Class A LPTV stations. The effort failed due to a lack of support from the other FCC Commissioners.

Network affiliates

Though many low-power TV stations are either unaffiliated, or broadcast programming from small networks meant for their use, some LPTV stations are affiliated with major broadcast networks like Fox, The CW or My Network TV. Examples include in Youngstown, Ohio, where a pair of LPTV stations based at WYFX broadcast Fox programming, along with the digital subchannel of the co-owned CBS affiliate, WKBN-TV, or in the Lima, Ohio area, whose low-power stations are affiliates of major networks, such as NBC and ABC.

Digital transition

The FCC has not set a date (as of November 2008) whereby LPTV stations are required to convert to digital broadcasting. Therefore LPTV stations are exempt from the June 12, 2009 deadline to cease analog transmissions. The FCC did open a filing window for existing LPTV stations to file for a secondary digital channel to operate in parallel of its analog channel.

Unlike FM and AM, unlicensed use of TV bands is prohibited for broadcasting. The amateur television channels do allow for some very limited non-entertainment transmissions however, with some repeaters airing NASA TV during Space Shuttle missions when they are not in local use.

The Low Power Television industry was represented by the Community Broadcasters Association (CBA), which held its annual convention each year in October and an annual meeting each year in April at the National Association of Broadcasters Convention in Las Vegas. The meeting was always held on Monday night of the NAB convention in Ballroom B of the Las Vegas Hilton and was open to anyone interested in the Low Power Television industry.^{[citation needed]} On August 13, 2009, the CBA announced in a statement that it would shut down after 20 years of representing LPTV stations. One reason given was the "restrictive regulations that kept the Class A and LPTV industry from realizing its potential". Another was the inability to reach most viewers, partly due to Multichannel Video Programming Distributors refusing to carry these channels. Also, Amy Brown, former CBA executive director, said, "some 40% of Class A and LPTV station operators believe they will have to shut down in the next year if they are not helped through the digital transition."^[21]

Update

In February 2006, the FCC released its Notices of Proposed Rules for Digital Radio. The Commission reaffirms its commitment to provide broadcasters with the opportunity to take advantage of digital audio broadcasting (DAB) technology, proposed criteria for evaluating models and systems, such as the In Band On Channel (IBOC) system, and inquired on the needs for a mandatory DAB transmission standard.

In section 39 of the Notice, the FCC inquires as how to balance incentives for broadcasters to switch to digital systems with incumbents of new entrance opportunities, stating that they “seek analyses of the minimum power levels that would preserve service within protected service areas in an all-digital environment, and alternatively, the levels that would not result in significant disruptions to current listening patterns.” ^[22]

The DAB system that has been identified as the best fit for LPFM is IBOC system. This is a hybrid system that uses existing frequencies and can operate carrying digital information along with analog broadcast signal on the sidebands. However, the digital carriers require the bandwidth to be widened, which would cause interference to stations on the first adjacent channel. If LPFM adopts IBOC, then LPFM would also need to accept a second adjacent channel restriction between two LPFM stations, as there is a potential that the sidebands of two LPFM stations would overlap causing interference. Currently, imposing a second adjacent channel restriction would impact less than 10 LPFM stations.^[23]

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